Energy and Environment 

A Mild Green Initiative, for Christchurch 2001 - 2021
 

Notice

Contents 

Executive Summary 

Acknowledgments

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report is a concept conceived and promoted by the author and contains intellectual property drawn form many sources. Time and resource contraints limit the capacity to credit sources where due. (a cited version will follow, in HTML)

This report and the study on which it is based on many contributing authors are for the large part internet sourced. 
Examples of teh tools and applications can be found on this website. http://www.mildgreens.com
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organisations or agencies that have provided information and support for the project. 

Copyright 2001, Blair Anderson. All rights reserved. 

Printed in Christchurch, New Zealand. 

The Mild Green Initiative is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of scholars and philanthropists engaged actively in evidence based social policy, scientific, medical and engineering research, dedicated to the furthering applied science and technology and to promoting policy analytic standards for the general welfare of the community. 

The Mild Green Initiative was established in 1999 to advocate legislative reform initiatives in promoting industrial hemp bioresource, developing the national drug policy, and contributing to the analytic policy advice on education, law, health, democracy, technology and community issues. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, and has the responsibility for and experience in advising and lobbying national and civic government, encouraging education and policy research, and recognising achievements in social equity based community policy adjustments. 

The Mild Green Initiative is administered jointly by Blair Anderson and Kevin O'Connell, BioSAFE and its attendant technologies and applied principles and concepts are the intellectual property of Blair Anderson.
 
 

bioSAFE PROPOSAL

Research & Development initiative for applied 
BIOMASS-DERIVED transportation and stationary Fuels

Acknowledgments 

The Mild Green executive wishes to thank the representatives from Council for the opportunity to present at short notice, for convening meetings and for responding promptly to requested information. The Mild Green executive also acknowledges the valuable contributions of many organisations inside and outside of New Zealand that have provided information relevant to the bioSAFE proposal. 

This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with non-disclosure procedures. It contains strategic information, much of it public in nature it is a collation and a collaboration and thus a 'derivative work' under the Berne Convention and WIPO. Hence it contains proprietary information and value to the authors that is commercially sensitive. Express permission of the principle author (Blair Anderson) should be sought before releasing this information to third party’s outside of the intended audience, in particular for commercial and/or personal gain, real or unintended. 

This concept document is part of a greater whole, comprising of powerpoint presentations, spreadsheets images and ancillary literature, examples, evidence and includes the content/concept ideas as personally represented by the author. The object of this document is to convey the strategy overview. It’s purpose is to provide a candid and critical assesment to the CCC/ECAN executive to facilitate a commitment to participating in a coordinated and evolutionary biofuels programme consistent with Kyoto, Climate Change, Regional and Civic public health objectives.

It is intended to assist enabling strategic commercial risk decisions to be as sound as possible. The science behind the report endeavors to meet institutional standards for objectivity and evidence. The social dividend, an end goal state imperative, is both immeasurable, and an obligation. 

This report is inspired by the goal of improving the social dividend, engage the community corps d’espirit and acheve localy what we all should be doing globaly . 

It has also been entirely voluntary. 

The content of the report, presentations and draft manuscripts remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process until consensus is formally ratified. (they are all a work in progress)

Responsibility for the final draft of this report rests solely with the author. No suggestion ignored.

CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

(notes Air pollution is just one of the issues on the agenda at the earth summit being held Aug. 26 through Sept. 4 in Johannesburg, South Africa)

INTRODUCTION 

Production and Manufacture of Biofuels biodiesel bioethanol/methanol

Role of Local Government 

Strategic Objectives for BioFuels Development 

Budget Fuels Development 

Study Goals 

Historical Background and Public Policy 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Biofuels 

Alternative Fuels and Vehicle Technologies 

Markets for Biomass-Derived Ethanol 

Manufacturing Biomass-Derived Ethanol 

Conclusions 

Program Objectives and Overview 

Allocation of Funding 

Shift in Strategic Direction 

Genomics 

Conclusions 

Recommendations 

Program Objectives and Overview 

Back to Fundamentals 

Improving Conversion 

Opportunities for Coproducts 

NonAuto Biodiesel 

Conclusions 

Recommendations 

Systems Analysis 

Technology Integration 

Increasing Links 

Community based rationale for a Biofuels development program 

Markets for Cellulosic Biomass-Derived Fuels 

Cost Estimates for Biodiesel Manufacturing 

Participants in the Feedstock Development Program, 

Application for Funds for Feedstock Development Projects 

Peer Review 

APPENDICES 

Executive Summary 
 
 

WHAT DOES THE ACRONYM ‘SAFE’ STAND FOR? 

• Sustainable
• Agriculture
• Fueled
• Environments/Energy/Equipped

The Mild Green concept of bioSAFE and bioSAFE CITIES proposes integrating existing education, research and commerce infrastructure to compliment central and local governments efforts to meet energy demands and Kyoto objectives.

This report is both a why and how too make biomass-based ethanol (bioethanol), methyl esters (biodiesel)  practical and affordable additive (blend) and alternative (neat) to existing non-renewable hydrocarbon petrol and diesel. By-products of consumer handy carbon brick biofuels and other downstream added value commercial byproducts such as agri-fibres for insualtion and composite construction materials, and a diverse range of enhanced bio-products  for local and international markets are available.

The proposed bioSAFE Biomass/Biofuel Program should contribute to merchandising and stumulating key research and development (R&D) and industry-government partnerships for the establishment of a cellulosic biomass energy industry. Cellulosic biomass resources include agronomic and forest crop residues, woody crops, perennial grasses, municipal and industrial carbon based wastes such as oils, tires (or tyres), fats and plastics and other organic matter.

Hemp (Cannabis Sativa) has been selected for its known suitability as a base biosource providing the core economic return, emphasis being on it the most highly indicated resource for clean air additive biodiesel. (other alternatives do exist, such as Miscanthus x giganteus, nothing is being discounted, the end solution will be "a mixed crop" )

The proposal to move to hemp trials and hemp to energy conversion, is based upon proven technologies and exploit the non-Kyoto status of existing ratepaying investment in 11,000 hectares of woody biomass. (existing CCC forestry estate) An additional 9000 hectares of marginal land is envisaged to be brought into production in progressive steps.

Starch-based sources, such as cereal grains (e.g., corn grain alcohol’s/fermentation), are not included in this concept proposal although these are anticipated to add to the overall economics as carbon trading makes cellulose recovery and handling viable for these resources.

The objective of the bioSAFE concept is to "brand" an entity or function that embodies the symbiotic and critical relationships fostering sustainable fuels for community environmental needs in the interests of all consumers, but delivers inparticular higher standards (Ottawa Charter) protection to at risk sectors including but not limited to  diabetics, asmatics, people with cardiovascular and pulmonary risk,  children and the elderly. At the same time bioSAFE works to protect the regions air, land, and water.

STRATEGIC PROGRAM OBJECTIVES 
 

The Mild Green Initiative for bioSAFE CITIES establishes short medium and long term strategic program to establish and promote the steady, evidence based development of biofuel technologies integrated with potential to byproduct 'added value' commercialisation. 

It is proposes a flexible and innovative energy extraction options outside of the existing paradigms. while meeting broader valued social objectives.

Currently, bioethanol cannot compete with existing petrol, nor should it attempt to (unless markets are subsidised by greenhouse and other social dividend tax credits, or the middle east goes to war ). 

Bioethanol is used today as a blending agent in some petrols and as a neat fuel in internal combustion engines in a few vehicles. In the future, bioethanol may also be used in fuel-cell vehicles. In all cases, the comparative cost of bioethanol will be the controlling factor, although the competitiveness of bioethanol could improve if stringent regulations on the emission of greenhouse gases are adopted. 

The current bioSAFE CITIES proposal is commence immediate exploitation of hemp based low-cost feedstocks into biodiesel additive to existing petroleum based diesel, build a skill and knowledge base and facilitate technology transfer.

Consistently and concurrently, planning medium term for feedstock options from residues of agricultural and forest products and, in particular municipal solid waste should be integrated into a funded and resourced hemp model. In the long term, sources of cellulosic biomass, such as other dedicated energy crops, may become available at competitive cost into more marginalised regions, or where electricity reticulation costs and other energy load factors are increasingly wasteful of resources.

The following program objectives are outlined;

short term 

Recognising end to end "branding" in 

• achieving sustainable agricultural/pastoral land use, 
• matching plant type and growth potentials to environment, 
• harvesting materials handling and preprocessing
• biology to energy

• cogeneration and commercialisation of energy outputs

• end users 
• fleet operators
• scientists
• CLEAN CITIES and other global initiatives.


medium term 

Many interacting factors will affect the position of biofuels in transportation and stationary domestic fuel markets. These include

• advances in the technologies used to produce biofuels at a competitive cost, 
• tax incentives, carbon tax, 
• advances in vehicle and engine technologies, 
• solid waste disposal and air quality
• global measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere
• legislative oversight and compliance issues.
• public communications


long term 

Elevate the "Garden City" concept to recognised world leadership in sustainable communities.

Near-term objectives (2001—2003). 

Scope and complete Hemp Trials application (in progress)

Establish bioSAFE entity - Inventory of resources, partners, focus groups, concept detailing etc. 

Scope midterm funding options. 

- coordination with research partners. 

- returns from early production cycles 

- equity partners (seed to venture capital) 

Applications for local, regional and central government support and funding. 

Demonstrate the commercial-scale production of ligno-cellulosic biodiesel. 

Enable biofuel to power demonstration/trials in existing fleet (B100 hybrid and B20 legacy) 

Gain public support for "sustainable garden city" 

Midterm objectives (2003—2010). 

Demonstrate commercial-scale enzymatic ethanol production by one or more ethanol plants. 

Integrate agricultural/waste/forest residues together with components of dedicated biomass supply options, such as other energy crops switchgrass, tobacco or residues from woody crops (willow etc.) that have been used for fibre/woodlot. 

Long-term objectives (2010—2021). Demonstrate that biodiesel manufactured from a dedicated energy crops, such as hemp and specific woody crops, is cost effective additive to mineral diesel for environment and social objectives. Facilitation and deployment of integrated skills to meet regional requirements. 

Beyond 2010, feedstock horticultural knowledge and skills directed at research and development towards production cost reductions, coupled with increased production through genetic cultivar improvements should increase overall process efficiencies and enhance the value of coproducts. 

To achieve these objectives, the author believes that bioSAFE CONCEPTS will have to 

1. meet the technology cost-reduction targets demanded by the marketplace, 
2. leverage hemp-biodiesel conversion business and technical resources to expand the biofuels market base, and 
3. engage in cost-shared demonstration projects with industrial partners to encourage the acceptance of new technology and reduce market barriers.
4. win consumers hearts and minds  

Wider public access to B20 Biofuel deployment objectives are achievable as the benefits accrue and cost sensitivity diminishes. Unknown factors include the full spectrum of what can or might go wrong, ranging from the corporate dynamics within the complex petrochemical industries, resistance to long term grower contracts (15yrs typical), the standard raft of agricultural/weather risks, and risk of destabilised geopolitics affecting global petroleum supplies (already currently heavily subsidised by military measures and security budgets)

Cost estimates of B20, remains underpinned by the per barrel spot markets. The author believes that a B20 contribution to the energy base price will occur but be potentially more stable than offered by doing nothing. Fear of increased fuel costs are real and would contribute to rates of inflation, however costing in the internalised benefits of added fuel price stability, security and valuing the true community environmental costs needs to be considered. Depreciation and investment amortisation for biofuels economics for a given production facility life cycle limits the process technology investment being pursued in the bioSAFE program.

For 100% public access to Biodiesel will require significant cost reductions, not incremental improvements in the current (proposed) processes and/or breakthroughs (i.e., the replacement of current process steps by much less expensive, much more efficient labour minimised alternatives). 

In the authors view, widespread market acceptance of biodiesel is not achievable with current technology base until about 15 years into the development cycle 

Emerging advances is scale of operational biofuels plants in California (capacities of 500,000 tons per annum) suggest potentially lower cost technologies are being developed and will be available in decreasing scales to suit implantation on a regional basis (operational feedstock radii - < 20km) 

Therefore, the suggested milestones should be used not only to track progress toward an optimal production target of biodiesel for a given regional requirement but also to compare technologies such as co-generation (heating and electricity generation) costs with petroleum industry costs. Deploying distributed microrefinery plants will provide opportunities for working with more scientists and engineers to improve biomass conversion technologies. 

The author has collated research demonstrating large-scale biodiesel plants that use currently available, well demonstrated, technologies and some new technology, notably continuous steam explosion (STEX) to increase primary and byproduct yields.

The knowledge and experience from these large-scale demonstrations should help identify the risks and reduce the costs of biodiesel production. Large scale is a much more expensive proposition, and does not necessarily meet New Zealand requirements in the short to medium term. A large scale operation would require hinterland for biomass farming estimated at 50-100,000 acres of near contiguous arable (marginal 2) land spaces. There are a number of areas that could meet this specification and that it warrants further investigation, it is beyond the scope of this proposal.

This proposal is a concept document, It suggests both a manufacturing and marketing paradigm. The market is as necessary for the successful scaleable deployment of the first. 

Once the concept of bioSAFE CITIES, bioSAFE PLACES, bioSAFE HIGHWAYS and bioSAFE ENVIRONMENTS program supporting commercialisation has been completed (2005) should reestablish its leadership role by focusing on providing a technical basis for the next generation of commercial ventures. 

Recommendation. To reduce the cost of biofuel and increase competitiveness with other energy sources in the near term (2001—2010) and midterm (2010—2021), the bioSAFE concept can (could) be franchised and revenues redirected into focusing its research and development programs towards supporting hybrid microrefinery demonstrations, and providing technology fundamentals for both feedstock development and ligno-cellulosic pyrolytic and ethanol conversion. 

Continued technical support should be provided to improve microrefinery plants. Maintaining quality of and evaluating the results of fundamental and applied research and development. As industrial firms commercialise around these lower cost technologies, the role of the bioSAFE development in biofuels research should be refocused on overcoming the remaining technical barriers, 
 
 

MARKET POTENTIAL FOR BIOMASS-DERIVED FUELS 

The motivation for developing biodiesel as a transportation fuel is based on concerns about energy security, environmental quality, and trade deficits. Current research is focused on the potential for biodiesel and methanol/ethanol to reduce net emissions of greenhouse gases and potential harmful products to the atmosphere from dedicated energy crops (e.g., woody crops, herbaceous perennials such as HEMP). 

The impact of the entire fuel cycle, which includes growing, harvesting, processing, and consuming biodiesel, is expected to add very little net carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. However, the magnitude of net reductions of greenhouse gases produced by biomass is still the subject of heated debate, and the entire life cycle of the fuel, including feedstock production, combustion, and transportation, has been the subject of research on greenhouse gas emissions from bioethanol manufactured from corn starch, woody crops, and herbaceous crops. 

Although the benefits from the production of bioethanol from corn and other agricultural residues have not been determined, the benefits from dedicated (i.e. hemp) and byproduct sourced renewable crops to reduce net emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The major component of the process being carbon neutral displaces demand for geology sourced carbon energy. There will always be a demand for petrochemical sourced fuels and derivatives. In hte short term organic production is not expected to displace to any significant degree current production capacity.. but it can enhance current utilization of mineral based fuel oils, and ameliorate the effects of the use of these in urban environments. 

One concern about the introduction of biofuels is that the diversion of land to energy production could reduce the acreage devoted to food production. In the case of biofuels, however, the coproduction of biobased ethanol, biobased chemicals, and human food and animal feed products in "biorefineries" could actually reduce conflicts between the production of food and the production of fuels. A possible disadvantage is that the large-scale harvesting of crop residues could increase soil and wind erosion. With proper soil management techniques, however, biofuels based on crop residues may not degrade topsoil. In some cases, production of perennial bioenergy crops could provide local benefits to bioremediation of existing overused/damaged soils, remineralisation and  biofiltration (removal of unwanted nutrients from soil or groundwater via plant root uptake and metabolism), erosion control, and the creation of wildlife habitat. Thus, the economics and environmental effects of cellulosic biomass production will vary with the characteristics of the site, but are anticipated to be largely beneficial.

The current subsidised market for ethanol as a blend stock in US. gasoline to satisfy octane and oxygenate requirements is subsidized by federal and some state tax incentives ($1.34-1.41/usGal. +/- .4c) 

In the long run, all aspects of the cellulosic biomass-based fuel industry will have to be competitive with petroleum-based fuels. Meeting this difficult challenge will require that a bioSAFE's bioethanol program achieve significant technical breakthroughs that lead to significant reductions in manufacturing costs. 

Additive Biodiesel is proprortionaly less affected by price as B20 blend  is effectively subsidised by the current economics of petroleum based diesel.

Although the displacement of geological sourced diesel by neat biodiesel is a long-term proposition, (apart from identified vertical markets) the subsidised use of biodiesel as a blend agent has created near-term opportunities. The Mild Green proposal takes advantage of this identified market condition to encourage the commercialisation of cellulosic biomass-conversion technology. by at least three companies that plan to use waste biomass, which is available at low cost. The establishment of commercial cellulosic biomass conversion can reinforce the credibility of the concept and provide valuable information for future commercialisation. 

The long-term commercial viability of cellulosic pyrolytic or enzymatic biofuels as a blending agent, as well as a neat fuel, will require that the product be competitive without government subsidies. 

In Europe, biodiesel is produced from rapeseed oil, but without the European Union's subsidy for farmers, rapeseed-based biodiesel would not be competitive in the marketplace. U.S. biodiesel manufacturing processes rely on soybean oil as a source of biomass. (they spend $US100Million/yr destroying ditchweed hemp) 

One gallon of biodiesel requires approximately 7lb of soybean oil; therefore, without the addition of methanol and before processing, the cost of biodiesel would be more than (US$1.50est,  NZ figures are being calculated ) per gallon. 

The high cost of oilseed and the high value of soybean oil for food and animal feed products makes it an unattractive raw material for a low-cost commodity feedstock such as biodiesel. Some niche markets in the USA have been established by legislation in response to environmental concerns based on subsidised soya production. New Zealand soybean-based biodiesel will on current land rates of return remain too expensive to become an economically viable neat fuel. 

Recommendation. Hemp offers the highest yield, lowest production cost for a biodiesel feedstock. An efficient biodiesel program will provide infrastructure and economies that can be captured and redirecting into complimentary enzymatic bioethanol programs that would not be viable in a standalone purpose built development. 

**(unless crude prices rocket.. in which case..this scenario/proposal remains true, and biodiesel/biofuel  is all that will save us anyway ) 
 
 

REDUCING THE COST OF BIOFUEL 

Once bioSAFE Concepts has helped commission and integrate several new biomass to energy plants, the author believes that the focus of bioSAFE CITIES's program should be shifted to fostering fundamental applied scientific and engineering studies in search of breakthroughs that would reduce the cost of producing biofuels. 

Breakthroughs will require a thorough understanding of the basic science and technical characteristics of materials handling and processing steps. This fundamental understanding will also provide a firm basis for scaling up from small experimental-sized units to mixed energy commodity producing unitised and scalar commercial plants. To benefit from advances, skills in basic horticulture genetic selection, agricultural engineering, feedstock handling, production and post production added value, it will require a strong integrated research program. Canterbury is idealy placed to deliver a market based solution. 

The commercialisation of the production of cellulosic feedstocks for the manufacture of biofuels and bioEnergy for public consumption will require time to mature. However, New Zealand, in particular Canterbury has the broad infrastructural end to end capacity, the only constraint to success, is lack of collective focus and a market model.

Extensive opportunity exists to interact with other jurisdictions, A biofuels success will bring synergistic relations and opportunities, exports, technology transfer, conferences, and education, including tourism from enhanced clean green profile.

The engineering expertise of bioSAFE CITY need have no central physical repository it can be located in cyberspace as the bioSAFE /Think Tank . (an online demonstration exists.. )

The author is of the view that some of the existing legacy petrochemical processing technologies currently in use have reached their inherent limitations and that even though incremental improvements may be achievable. Much less expensive, more adaptable and net environment-cost microrefinery alternatives will incrementally displace investment in central large scale technologies. 

For example, new biomass pretreatment options (such as STEX "steam explosion" ) in hemp to fuel research programs has been largely overlooked. for the last two decades because a particular ‘end product" was decided upon, and R&D has focused on hemp for specific downstream processing, even though pretreatment is a significant contributor to valued added byproduct (agrifibres) more  importanly economics of material handling/energy density in the overall balance sheet  contributes to lowering the cost of biofuel production. 

New Zealand is uniquely positioned to take advantage of STEX technologies, exploiting geothermal resources which exist in proximity the marginal lands suited to Hemp agriculture [NI], and also in proximity to existing fibre processing capacity and infrastructure. Advancing a biofuels programme cannot be separated from the ability to take advantage of opportunity.

In addition to a innovative biofuels program, a broad range of innovative research is being done on adding value byproducts (i.e. glycerol’s). C4 chain length polymers are characterized by biodegradability could improve the economic returns from manufacture of biodiesel, and are consistent with the broader ecological social imperatives. (ie: bioSAFE rubbish/supermarket bags)

Urban waste consists of a significant percentage of plastic and fibre packaging that could be reduced by incorporating biofuels byproduct.

The author agrees with scientific assessments that advances in pretreatment and biological processing of biomass feedstocks will make a major impact on total cost of bioEnergy production. bioSAFE CONCEPTS should monitor and support research and development on pretreatment of feedstocks improving byproduct qualities, feedstock engineering to improve processing, increasing pyrolyic yields, consolidated bioprocessing with cogeneration, and fundamental studies adding value to coproducts. (ie bioreactors for nutricuitical and food additives)

A better fundamental understanding of underlying phenomena in all of these areas will be crucial to breakthroughs and the development of innovative approaches for reducing costs. Because diverse approaches can make a positive impact on biomass processing, the author cannot provide a complete list of fruitful areas for research or accurately predict where breakthroughs might occur, although focus should be where we have strengths. 

1. in the agricultural sector of feedstock development, 
2. improving cultivars, 
3. yields and harvesting efficiencies. 

New Zealand’s agronomic environment will require regional feedstock development "centers of excellence" aimed at increasing local yields and may require incorporation of other desirable cellulosic feedstock such as willow, switchgrass, and poplar. bioSAFE CONCEPTS should become self funding with responsibility for oversight in overall strategies to enhance building consistent and established sustainable crop management standards and systems; and involve ongoing evaluation of potential environmental and economic impacts of the local/regional production of cellulosic biomass feedstocks. Because of the many scientific opportunities for genetic selection and cultivar improvement in the midterm, bioSAFE should coordinate liaison and monitoring for genetic selection, bioengineering advances and in genomics programs, building on academic relationships with horticulture and silviculture providers to enhance opportunities for established expertise in plant breeding and bioEnergy/biofuels technology.

Compared to the conversion and processing programs, however, the feedstock development program requires modest funding. The author believes that program configurations may have to be reevaluated to determine if additional funding for feedstock development is warranted as the concept expands into different climate/geology of marginal lands. 

Recommendation. bioSAFE CITIES development should focus on coordinating/encouraging fundamental research in the following areas for reducing the costs of manufacturing biofuels:

methyl esters 

(this bit is a work in progress) 

1. ethanols 
1. advanced pretreatments; 
2. consolidated bioprocessing; 
3. digestive enzyme activity; 
4. the development of diversified products and coproducts during biomass processing or via plant metabolism; 
5. reductions in the cost of raw materials via improved yield or the development of pest-resistant and stress-resistant plants; and 
6. changes in feedstocks to make processing and conversion more efficient by modifying plant biochemistry. 
 

Biofuels production costs include both feedstock development (production, collection, and handling) and conversion processes (pretreatment, fermentation, distillation, pentose conversion, and cellulose production). Because the process of obtaining a liquid fuel from biomass entails several steps, a change in one part of the system can affect other components. For example, as the limits on cellulose enzyme-specific activity at the molecular level are better understood, genetic engineering/selection may lead to the development of plant matter more amenable to enzymatic hydrolysis, thus increasing the efficiency of biofuel manufacturing. 

Integrated analysis is a useful technique for determining relationships between feedstock development and conversion processes and impacts on total costs for biofuels. Agricultural and forest residues as well as dedicated energy crops are potential sources of biomass for conversion to bioFuel. Because feedstocks can contribute as much as 40-80 percent to total 'at the pump' biofuel costs, bioSAFE CITIES should thoroughly evaluate the logistics and costs of producing, harvesting, collecting, and transporting feedstocks and impacts on processing and cogeneration economics. 

bioSAFE CITIES researchers could use systems modeling to uncover opportunities for small-scale bioethanol/biodiesel processors and export potentials for biofuel conversion technologies. To determine the best opportunities for major new technology options and cost reductions, bioSAFE CITIES should undertake an integrated review of both the feedstock and processing components of its programs. 

Recommendation. The bioSAFE CITIES development should consider developing an integrated systems model that encompasses feedstock development, collection, storage, transport, and biomass processing. This model could reveal opportunities for reducing costs, optimising synergism among technologies, and prioritizing projects to achieve program goals in light of changing market opportunities. 

PROGRAM MANAGEMENT 

A strong R&D program will require careful monitoring of its performance. Peer review can be used to evaluate proposed R&D projects and measure performance of ongoing projects. Peer review can increase the likelihood of the program developing cost-effective strategies and applied technologies for both the production of biodiesel and internalising the benefits of acting as a national research facility. 

Researchers and program managers should be accountable for ensuring that their research is directed toward meeting specific performance goals. The author encourages bioSAFE CITIES to continue using outside reviews to evaluate its applied biofuels programs. To make significant technological progress, bioSAFE CITIES should reach for innovation ideas from institutions outside of traditional government and NGO's laboratories. 

Recommendation. The bioSAFE CITIES development should establish clear criteria for evaluating project performance levels and should include reviewers from academia, industry, local bodies, central government and NGO's programs in its evaluations. 

This has been a mild green initiative.

APPENDICES

It exists, its interim, and its evolving...

Put simply, there is no magic bullet solution to address all the factors relating to air-shed protection, but there is much that can be done and considerable incentive to do so. 

What alerted me to this problem... ?? 

1. I "went to sleep" at the wheel of a faulty 10 ton compacting roller. and crashed into a geriatric ward. (CO+particulates) ! 

2. Cycling/Walking during Peak hour traffic. 

3. Was hospitalised with chest pains, and everything said "inner-city, peak emissions, cold+ozone+particulates". 

dirty diesel, and life in the slow lane.

Described graphically below [fig one, dirty diesel and life in the slow lane] is the principle public health emission problem that occurs "day to day - day in, day out". 

Unlike "log fire" emissions that occur principally in cold, still weather conditions. (These are seen in the "excess" PM10 days over winter.) 

Particulates from mobile source diesel and stationary (including idling) diesel plant is a significant contributor to public health costs in our community. 

It has been linked "causally" to morbidity and disability and has a relationship that is straight line, and zero-zero origin. There is no lower threshold. (UK Ministry of Health, notified to CCC Transport Policy 2001/ ECAN 2001 / EECA / MfE ) 

Particulate exposure occurs over time, it is like "radiation".. double the exposure doubles the risk, doubling the window of time, doubles the risk again. 

Exercise in it.. and risk is increased proportional to oxygen uptake. 

Cumulative experience of man-made particulate inhalation occurs against a background of complex "other factors" including season, weather, temperature, proximity and variable geological and biological sources all of which can be prejudicial. 

Biological sources of particulates include trees, crops and natural event exposure from fires. These are characterised by "there is little we can do about it." 

We take steps to mitigate risk with natural event exposure. 

Are we doing enough risk management with manmade emissions?. 

We are seeing now, media portraying asian brown clouds, 100 year floods, firestorms and massive ice sheet changes, this is at potentially massive cost to millions of individuals, the environment and geo-political affairs. 

Particulate exposure is related to a number of factors that differ from the "air shed" polluters such as open fires in that they are for the large part invisible. I have chosen to specialise in particulate analysis as the science and public health cost is "emerging" and needing public representation, but that there is precautionary principle in public health policy where and when costs are borne on selected groups of people disproportionately. 

(the payoff can be that fixing it, fixes so much else) 

The details and evidence will emerge here.. 

For the moment.. this is all you get ;-)

As they say.. come back soon.

When the global commons are under duress, fix the little things.

Oddly, the smallest and most dangerous particulate group.. PM2.5 is the one we know least about.

consider 

Diesel exhaust particles are particularly potent tumor inducers. (see Wisconsin Dept of Natural Resources)
 

Air Pollution Harmful to Babies, Fetuses, Studies Say Smog is linked to stillbirths, infant deaths and low birth weight - Harvard School of Public Health and the University of Basel in Switzerland concluded that as many as 11% of  infant deaths in the United States--about 3,000 per year--may be a result of microscopic particles in the air. ( December 16, 2001 in the Los Angeles Times)
 

The science and epidemiology of PM10 is still a very narrow focus. 

To narrow for many of the generic social costs of air pollution, such as tourism and visibility.

However, as I came to understand the problem and visualize a solution, much of the laudable benefit of the PM solution space is that it addresses many of the other major intrinsic air quality issues.. homeheating, urban transport and city planning strategies and of course climate change.

The solution can be implemented progressively, the infrastructure is all there.. and its easier than going to the moon.

Actually, we don't have a choice.

We just have to find a way to do it...

Put simply, I think this is it.

Contact details.... 

I welcome your feedback, query and/or contribution, please telephone 64 3 389-4065 or cell phone me on 025 265 7219 or email mailto:blair@technologist.com
 

  Thanks for coming this far! 
 
 

(and no i haven't spell checked this yet..I am compiling this on the fly..so that those of you who read this.. errors, omissions, warts and all, belong to me! OK ? )

Diesel engines provide consumers with fuel efficiency, reliability, and durability, but they also pollute the environment by emitting nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM)**, sulfur dioxide, ketones, sulfates, cyanides, ammonia and other toxic substances such as arsenic, benzene, nickel, and formaldehyde into the air. Diesel engines are different from other internal combustion engines in that they use high pressure instead of spark plugs to ignite the fuel. Diesel operations require high temperatures causing oxygen and nitrogen from the intake air to combine as NOx. Diesel engines are used in heavy-duty trucks (large pickups and tractor-trailers), buses, and cars. They can also be found in non-road mobile sources such as: tractors, graders, combines, cranes, bulldozers, forklifts, compressors, generators and other construction and industrial vehicles. Emissions from mobile and stationary diesel engines have played a significant role in degrading Air Quality health standards in many regions across the country.

**Particulate matter, PM10, "Particulates have been associated with increased respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema), cardiopulmonary disease (heart attack), and cancer." (1996 Illinois Annual Air Quality Report , p. 3) Diesel truck exhaust contributes "90% of soot from all vehicle sources." (From an Action  Alert, American Lung Association, Metropolitan Chicago. 3/11/99) 

When NOx and VOCs react with heat and sunlight, ground-level ozone (smog) is formed. Elevated levels of ozone are harmful to human health. According to government sources, nonroad diesel engines emit approximately ten percent, and heavy duty vehicles emit twelve percent of the nationwide emission of NOx. The detrimental health effects of ozone include: a decrease in lung function, an increase in airway inflammation and sensitivity to other irritants, an impairment of lung defenses, chest pain, coughing, and wheezing. High level exposure to NOx can lead to respiratory illness, cause bronchial tube constriction in lungs, and may increase bronchitis in children. NOx emissions also contribute to acid recipitation which damages ecosystems within lakes and streams, harms trees, and reduces agricultural crop yield. NOx is especially problematic because it is transported across large distances, meaning that high levels of NOx in one region may affect ozone and acid precipitation in nearby regions. 

Particulate matter can be found in visible pollutants such as smoke and soot as well as invisible aerosols formed from gaseous pollutants. Combustion produces particulates including sulfates, organic carbon aerosols, ammonium, nitrates, and carbon soot which are very small (2.5-10 microns; 10 microns is equivalent to 1/2500 of an inch). Diesel particulates are generally smaller than 1 micron. Exposure to particulate matter may affect breathing and other functions of the respiratory system, aggravate existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alter the body's defense mechanisms against foreign material, and cause direct and indirect damage to lung tissue. Since diesel particulates are smaller than average, they can penetrate and damage lung tissue easier. Studies have shown that diesel powered engines emit fifty to eighty times more particulate matter than a typical gasoline powered cars. Particulate matter is especially dangerous in cities because of the large volume of traffic. It has been estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and The Harvard School of Public Health that between 50,000 and 60,000 people in the United States die prematurely each year as a result of particulate air pollution. In 1995 The Harvard School of Public Health also reported that residents living in the nation's most polluted cities suffer from a mortality rate that is more than 15% higher than residents in cleaner air cities. 

Diesel exhaust also contains many carcinogens including arsenic, benzene, and nickel. Other air toxics found in the exhaust include; 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, dioxins, dibenzofurans, formaldehyde, acetone, aluminum, ammonia, barium, copper, silver, sulfuric acid, and zinc. Sulfur is also a component of diesel exhaust found as sulfur dioxide (SO2). Studies have indicated that inhalation of SO2 can cause bronchial tubes to constrict and can also worsen preexisting respiratory diseases. SO2 + humidity also contributes to acid precipitation. 

Many people are affected by diesel air pollution. Those at greatest risk are to *unborn babies, children, the elderly, those who exercise outdoors, and people with respiratory or cardiovascular diseases. Children are at risk because they often spend a great deal of time outdoors, and since they are generally smaller than adults, they inhale more air per pound of body weight and therefore more pollution. The elderly are at risk because their immune systems are not strong and because a disproportionate number suffer from cardiovascular weaknesses. Those who live in and around a metropolitan area and who exercise outdoors are also at risk because exercising increases heart rate and breathing rate. (Air Quality factors also contribute to "not exercising" elevating public health risk). Increased amounts of pollutants are inhaled often through the mouth, bypassing nasal filters that protect humans from destructive substances such as particulate matter and toxic aerosols. People who suffer from asthma are particularly affected by particulates because the small particles disrupt their already disabled breathing. The inhalation of diesel particulates can also cause cancer, pneumonia, bronchitis, pleurisy, and other respiratory ailments. 

*"Smog can harm the health of babies," said Beate Ritz, an epidemiologist at UCLA's Center for Occupational and Environmental Health. "This should make us pause. Air pollution doesn't just impact asthmatics and old people at the end of life, but it can affect people at the beginning  of their life, and that can disadvantage people throughout their life." 

Solutions

Currently, new engine and fuel standards and regulations at the national level are being proposed that would force manufacturers of diesel engines to develop and deploy technologies that would reduce the amount of NOx, particulate matter, VOCs, and other substances emitted. Fleet replacement is capital intensive. 
Proposed fuel standards are some way down the line but significant progress has been made driven by consumer concern and demand (ie BP Low sulphur diesel 500ppm). 

Biodiesel (B100) presently has no standards. 

There are many alternatives to diesel engines. Many diesel city buses are being replaced by either electric or compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. Hybrid buses that combine internal combustion fuels like gasoline, diesel or natural gas and stored electric power, are currently being developed and deployed. Electric and natural gas cars are now on the market and offer a very "clean" alternative to other sources of fuel, but they comprise only a small percentage of the automobile market. The development of new technology will play a large role in reducing diesel and other mobile source pollution. 

More than a century ago came the recognition that the design and management of cities had a direct relationship with the public health concerns of American city-dwellers. While diseases such as tuberculosis, polio and dysentery have all but been eradicated there is now an epidemic of chronic "lifestyle" diseases. Obesity, heart disease and respiratory illness are afflicting nearly half of our  regional population. Public health professionals have concluded that the growing epidemics are a direct result of sedentary lifestyles.

How can public health and planning professionals collaborate to promote healthier lifestyles? 

How can we design communities that  promote more physical activity? Can we increase the number of daily pedestrian trips to school and work in new and existing communities? Can urban planning and subdivision designs incorporate sidewalks, greenways and other features that will promote walking? 

Overall Questions To Consider: 

Land use/real estate is typically not a public health issue. What are the fundamental connections? 

• What are the environments that promote public health?
• What are the environments that "decrease" individual activity levels?
• What is the basis for good state planning and new partnerships?
• What are the challenges?
  
• Should there be a regulatory response?
• Is there a demand for "healthy communities" from residents?
• What could be the potential response to this issue from our other regional councils?
• How can Canterbury be a  leader for healthy communities? 

Inactivity Contributes to a Nationwide Epidemic 

Obesity is epidemic.  Obesity is not simply a cosmetic disorder. Approximately 60% of overweight 5 to 10 year old children already have one associated biochemical or clinical cardiovascular risk factor like hyperlipidemia, or elevated blood pressure or insulin levels. Approximately 25% have two. 

The risk factors observed in children will become chronic diseases in adults. Almost 80% of obese adults have diabetes, high blood  cholesterol, high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, gall bladder disease or osteoarthritis, and almost 40% have two or more.  (Only smoking exceeds obesity in its contribution to total mortality rates in the United States.) A recent estimate that suggested that the direct and indirect costs of obesity in the United States approximated 10% of the national health care budget underscores why we  can no longer afford to ignore obesity as a major medical problem in the United States. 

Although behaviors related to food intake that contribute to the epidemic remain unclear, data from children have demonstrated an  apparently causal relationship between sedentary behavior and the onset and persistence of obesity. Furthermore, although physical  activity may not substantially improve rates of weight loss among the obese, activity appears to improve many of the diseases  associated with obesity, such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. These observations suggest that the most  effective approach to begin to control the obesity epidemic and its adverse effects is to promote physical activity. 

Do We Want to Become More Physically Active? 

"Two studies published recently in the Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that you can improve your health as effectively through small lifestyle changes and moderate physical activity as you can by following a vigorous exercise program. Such moderate activity can be as simple as walking around the block, working in the garden or taking the stairs instead of an  elevator," from the Surgeon General to the People of Philadelphia. January 2000. 

Given the increased national concern over urban sprawl, opportunities abound to design and refine communities to promote physical activity. This approach would enhance the health of communities and also make them more livable and transit-friendly. Surveys support broad public support for additional investment in recreational and pedestrian amenities. 

Our Regional Growth 

The Census Bureau forecasts that the nation's population will grow by 60 million by 2020-which would be the equivalent of adding two  states with the population and service demand of California. This growth will require the construction of approximately one million new  housing units per year for the next two decades. 

While the New York metropolitan region is expected to grow at a slower rate it will add two million new residents by 2020, a 10%  increase over current levels. During this same period, the region's economy could grow by as much as a third, creating greater buying  nd a higher standard of living. However, growing highway congestion in New York and other metropolitan regions could  severely constrain forecasted growth. For this reason, RPA's Third Regional Plan concluded that the region's capacity for growth and its  quality of life will depend on the extent to which it can focus development in New York City and other transit- and pedestrian-oriented  centers. This growth will require that the region's transit system, already the nation's largest-be modernized and expanded. 

The extent of growth to be accommodated both in the Nation and in the New York region, combined with the strong groundswell of  interest in smarter patterns of development would create a unique opportunity to plan, build and rebuild communities that are  conducive to healthier, more active lifestyles. In short, smart growth is healthier growth. RPA has calculated that failure to promote   these new patterns of growth and mobility could constrict expansion of the New York region's economy by hundreds of billions of dollars annually by 2020. It can be expected that similar outcomes would be experienced in other regions across the country. 

Can Planners & Developers Help Fill a Prescription for Public Health?

Then…  The disciplines of urban planning and public health have common origins. More than a century ago came the recognition that the  design and management of cities had a direct relationship with the public health concerns of American city-dwellers. At that time, widespread epidemics of dysentery were caused by sewage contamination of the water supply. In addition, poverty and close living  quarters fostered tuberculosis. Coal smoke and particulates blocked the sunlight necessary for the synthesis of Vitamin-D in skin. As  a result, over 20% of urban children had rickets. 

As early as 1870, in his essay Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns, pioneer urban and park planner Frederick Law Olmsted identified the strong link between good public health and community design, opportunities for exercise and access to fresh air and sunlight. Olmsted built these attributes into his plans for New York's Central Park, Atlanta's Piedmont Park and dozens of other urban  park systems across the country. Later, the urban planning and public health professions developed around efforts to reduce the   incidence of these diseases through the principles of improved planning, design and management of America's urban communities: 

& Now 

There is now little disagreement that fat-rich diets and the lack of physical activity are leading causes of obesity, related cardiovascular disease and other serious chronic health conditions in the United States. However, until now there has been little  serious attention paid to the relationship between public health and the societal shift to suburban low density, automobile-oriented settlement patterns over the past fifty years. 

Today, most people live in low-density environments and are largely reliant on automobiles for their mobility. 

The use of the automobile requires little physical activity and burns few calories. Transit, on the other hand, requires walking at both ends of a trip, and it often requires stair-climbing and additional walking to access goods and services. 

Many suburban centers are reaching the carrying capacity limits of their highway systems, because they lack the concentration and mix of activities to support any mode of transportation other than single-occupant vehicles. At the same time, most suburban centers  contain extensive but isolated abandoned, undeveloped or underutilized parcels of land. 

Promoting reuse of these areas with infill development is the key to achieving more compact pedestrian- and transit-oriented development patterns. 

Only 30% of children who live within a mile of school walk to school. Although 25% of all trips are less than one mile, 75% of these trips are by car. To have a significant impact on public health, the goal must be to increase personal activity rates on a daily basis.

Travel to school and work is a regular, daily activity. Travel to shopping and recreational features is a regular, weekly activity. 

Many communities in our region do not have enough open space opportunities per capita. At the same time, heavily trafficked  roadways and neighborhood land use patterns render some spaces underutilized. 

Parks, gardens and neighborhood greenways are an important part of connecting isolated communities and encouraging physical activity levels to rise.